Learning Theories

Category: Social Learning Theories

Social learning theories.

  • Situated Learning Theory (Lave)

    Situated Learning Theory (Lave)

    Summary: Situated Learning Theory posits that learning is unintentional and situated within authentic activity, context and culture.

    Originator: Jean Lave[1]

    Key Terms: Legitimate Peripheral Participation (LPP), Cognitive Apprenticeship

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  • Stereotype Threat (Steele, Aronson)

    Summary: Stereotype threat is a phenomenon that occurs when people are at risk for living up to a negative stereotype about their group. For example, a woman may fail to reach her career goal of being a scientist because of how she changes her behavior in response to perceptions about her own gender.

    Originators: Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson

    Keywords: stereotypes, vulnerability, self-defeating behavior, performance, gender, race, intelligence

    Stereotype threat is a term that was created by social scientists Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson. They completed an important early study in 1995 which defined stereotype threat as “being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one’s group.”[i]

    In this study, Steele and Aronson observed the performance of Black and White students on academic tests. Steele and Aronson created the study in response to a negative stereotype about Black students which pervades culture – Black students are portrayed as less intelligent and less competent than White students. Because of this stereotype, Steele and Aronson wondered if Black students would “protectively dis-identify with achievement in school and related intellectual domains.” This desire to disengage from intellectual pursuits could possible lead Black students to live up to their negative stereotype.

    The results of the study confirmed the researcher’s suspicion. When test instructors emphasized the role of race before the test, researchers found that Black students performed worse than White students. When instructors did not emphasize race, Black and White students performed equally well.

    In essence, stereotype threat occurs when people fear that they will live up to a negative stereotype about their group. In response to their fear, they participate in disengaging and self-defeating behaviors that ironically cause them to live up to the feared stereotype.

    Stereotype Threat Impacts Peoples’ Behavior

    Stereotype threat has been shown to impact peoples’ behavior in the following ways.[ii]

    • Reduced effort – People who fear they might live up to a stereotype sometimes reduce their effort so they can have an excuse if they fall into that stereotype. For example, people may not prepare for a test so they have an excuse when they do poorly.
    • Disengaging – People who are stereotypically not good at something (such as woman in mathematics) will often disengage from that field or area.
    • Changing aspirations and career goals – Some people go as far as to change their life aspirations and career goals in response to stereotype threat.


    How to Reduce Stereotype Threat

    Stereotype threat has been studied extensively, with a heavy emphasis on how to reduce this phenomenon in various populations. Research shows that the following strategies can be effective. Many of these are practical strategies that can be carried out in classrooms and other settings.

    • Providing role models. People who observe role models from their group engaging in certain fields and activities are more likely to think they can do the same thing. One study showed that woman who read about other woman who had succeeded in fields of architecture, law, medicine, and intervention performed better on a mathematics test than those who didn’t.[iii]
    • Encouraging self-affirmation – One study showed that having African students engage in a self-affirming journal exercise before the start of a semester closed the racial achievement gap by 40%.[iv]
    • Emphasizing motivation and effort – African American students who were taught that intelligence is “a malleable rather than fixed capacity” that can be increased through motivation and effort received better grades than those who were not taught this.[v]

    Although stereotype threat is a significant concern for many vulnerable groups of people, research consistently shows that the effects of stereotype threat can be reduced through following strategies such as these.[v]

    Over three hundred studies have investigated stereotype threat in a wide variety of areas.[vi]

    References

    [i] Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797-811.

    [ii] Stroessner, S. & Good, C. (n.d.) Stereotype threat: An overview. Retrieved from http://diversity.arizona.edu/sites/diversity/files/stereotype_threat_overview.pdf

    [iii] McIntyre, R. B., Paulson, R., & Lord, C. (2003). Alleviating women’s mathematics stereotype threat through salience of group achievements. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 83-90.

    [iv] Cohen, G. L., Garcia, J., Apfel, N. & Master, A. (2006). Reducing the racial achievement gap: A social-psychological intervention. Science, 313, 1307-1310.

    [v] Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., & Good, C. (2002). Reducing the Effects of Stereotype Threat on African American College Students by Shaping Theories of Intelligence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 113-125.

    [vi] Stroessner, Steve; Good, Catherine. “Stereotype Threat: An Overview”. diversity.arizona.edu. Reducing Stereotype Threat.org. Retrieved 6 March 2011.

  • Albert Bandura

    In 2014, a list of the Top 100 Eminent Psychologists of the Modern Era was published in the Archives of Scientific Psychology. [7] Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura was ranked number one. Former president of the American Psychological Association, winner of numerous awards and more than sixteen honorary degrees, and widely held as the most influential psychologist alive today, Albert Bandura is among the most prolific psychologists in history.

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  • Erik Erikson

    Once described by a colleague as “Freud in sonnet form”, [5] psychological giant Erik Erikson blurred the line between science and art. A prolific researcher best known for his model of human development as a series of eight stages, Erikson’s long and abundantly rich life demonstrated a keen appreciation for the art of living. A look into the life and life’s work of Erik Erikson reveals the lasting impact of this great thinker.

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  • Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

    Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

    Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is an instructional method of hands-on, active learning centered on the investigation and resolution of messy, real-world problems.

    Contents

    Contributors
    Key Concepts
    Resources and References

    Contributors

    • Late 1960s at the medical school at McMaster University in Canada

    Key Concepts

    Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a pedagogical approach and curriculum design methodology often used in higher education and K-12 settings[1][2].

    The following are some of the defining characteristics of PBL:

    • Learning is driven by challenging, open-ended problems with no one “right” answer
    • Problems/cases are context specific
    • Students work as self-directed, active investigators and problem-solvers in small collaborative groups (typically of about five students)
    • A key problem is identified and a solution is agreed upon and implemented
    • Teachers adopt the role as facilitators of learning, guiding the learning process and promoting an environment of inquiry

    Rather than having a teacher provide facts and then testing students ability to recall these facts via memorization, PBL attempts to get students to apply knowledge to new situations. Students are faced with contextualized, ill-structured problems and are asked to investigate and discover meaningful solutions.

    Proponents believe that PBL:

    • develops critical thinking and creative skills
    • improves problem-solving skills
    • increases motivation
    • helps students learn to transfer knowledge to new situations

    History

    PBL’s more recent influence can be traced to the late 1960s at the medical school at McMaster University in Canada[3][4]. Shortly thereafter, three other medical schools — the University of Limburg at Maastricht (the Netherlands), the University of Newcastle (Australia), and the University of New Mexico (United States) took on the McMaster model of problem-based learning. Various adaptations were made and the model soon found its way to various other disciplines — business, dentistry, health sciences, law, engineering, education, and so on.

    Criticisms

    One common criticism of PBL is that students cannot really know what might be important for them to learn, especially in areas which they have no prior experience[3]. Therefore teachers, as facilitators, must be careful to assess and account for the prior knowledge that students bring to the classroom.

    Another criticism is that a teacher adopting a PBL approach may not be able to cover as much material as a conventional lecture-based course[3]. PBL can be very challenging to implement, as it requires a lot of planning and hard work for the teacher. It can be difficult at first for the teacher to “relinquish control” and become a facilitator, encouraging the students to ask the right questions rather than handing them solutions.

    Additional Resources and References

    Resources

    References

    1. Barrows, H. S. (1986). A taxonomy of problem?based learning methods.Medical education, 20(6), 481-486.
    2. Savery, J. R., & Duffy, T. M. (1995). Problem based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. Educational technology, 35(5), 31-38.
    3. Boud, D., & Feletti, G. (1997). The challenge of problem-based learning. Psychology Press.
    4. Barrows, H. S. (1996). Problem?based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief overview. New directions for teaching and learning, 1996(68), 3-12.
  • Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

    Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

    Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.

    Contents

    Contributors
    Key Concepts
    Resources and References

    Contributors

    • Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936)
    • John B. Watson (1878 – 1958)

    Key Concepts

    Several types of learning exist. The most basic form is associative learning, i.e., making a new association between events in the environment[1]. There are two forms of associative learning: classical conditioning (made famous by Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs) and operant conditioning.

    Pavlov’s Dogs

    In the early twentieth century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov did Nobel prize-winning work on digestion[2]. While studying the role of saliva in dogs’ digestive processes, he stumbled upon a phenomenon he labeled “psychic reflexes.” While an accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the importance of it. Pavlov’s dogs, restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat powder and they had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over time, he noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the meat powder was even presented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise produced by the device that distributed the meat powder.

    Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli such as the ringing of a bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory stimulus) were presented together several times, the bell was used alone. Pavlov’s dogs, as predicted, responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without the food). The bell began as a neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell itself did not produce the dogs’ salivation). However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that did produce the salivation response, the bell was able to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-response bonds (which some consider as the basic building blocks of learning) are formed. He dedicated much of the rest of his career further exploring this finding.

    In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog’s salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food.

    Pavlov’s Dogs

    John B. Watson: Early Classical Conditioning with Humans

    John B. Watson further extended Pavlov’s work and applied it to human beings[3]. In 1921, Watson studied Albert, an 11 month old infant child. The goal of the study was to condition Albert to become afraid of a white rat by pairing the white rat with a very loud, jarring noise (UCS). At first, Albert showed no sign of fear when he was presented with rats, but once the rat was repeatedly paired with the loud noise (UCS), Albert developed a fear of rats. It could be said that the loud noise (UCS) induced fear (UCR). The implications of Watson’s experiment suggested that classical conditioning could cause some phobias in humans.

    Additional Resources and References

    Resources

    References

    1. Mackintosh, N. J. (1983). Conditioning and associative learning (p. 316). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
    2. Pavlov, I. P., & Anrep, G. V. (2003). Conditioned reflexes. Courier Corporation.
    3. Watson, J. B. (2013). Behaviorism. Read Books Ltd.
  • Multiliteracies (New London Group)

    Multiliteracies (New London Group)

    Summary: Multiliteracies is a pedagogical approach developed in 1994 by the New London Group that aims to make classroom teaching more inclusive of cultural, linguistic, communicative, and technological diversity. They advocate this so that students will be better prepared for a successful life in a globalized world.

    Originators & Proponents: New London Group

    Keywords: communication, community engagement, cultural diversity, education, expression, globalization, language, linguistic diversity, literacy, modes, multimodality, pedagogy, technology

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  • Identity Status Theory (Marcia)

    Identity Status Theory (Marcia)

    Refining and extending Erik Erikson’s work, James Marcia came up with four Identity Statuses of psychological identity development. The main idea is that one’s sense of identity is determined largely by the choices and commitments made regarding certain personal and social traits.

    Contents

    Contributors
    Key Concepts
    Resources and References


    Contributors

    • James Marcia

    Key Concepts

    Based on Erik Erikson’s groundbreaking work on identity and psychosocial development in the 1960s, Canadian developmental psychologist James Marcia refined and extended Erikson’s model, primarily focusing on adolescent development[1][2]. Addressing Erikson’s notion of identity crisis, Marcia posited that the adolescent stage consists neither of identity resolution nor identity confusion, but rather the degree to which one has explored and committed to an identity in a variety of life domains from vocation, religion, relational choices, gender roles, and so on. Marcia’s theory of identity achievement argues that two distinct parts form an adolescent’s identity: crisis (i. e. a time when one’s values and choices are being reevaluated) and commitment. He defined a crisis as a time of upheaval where old values or choices are being reexamined. The end outcome of a crisis leads to a commitment made to a certain role or value.

    Identity Statuses of psychological identity development

    Upon developing a semi-structured interview for identity research, Marcia proposed Identity Statuses of psychological identity development:

    • Identity Diffusion – the status in which the adolescent does no have a sense of having choices; he or she has not yet made (nor is attempting/willing to make) a commitment
    • Identity Foreclosure – the status in which the adolescent seems willing to commit to some relevant roles, values, or goals for the future. Adolescents in this stage have not experienced an identity crisis. They tend to conform to the expectations of others regarding their future (e. g. allowing a parent to determine a career direction) As such, these individuals have not explored a range of options.
    • Identity Moratorium – the status in which the adolescent is currently in a crisis, exploring various commitments and is ready to make choices, but has not made a commitment to these choices yet.
    • Identity Achievement – the status in which adolescent has gone through a identity crisis and has made a commitment to a sense of identity (i.e. certain role or value) that he or she has chosen

    Note that the above status are not stages and should not viewed as a sequential process.

    Identity Formation Process

    The core idea is that one’s sense of identity is determined largely by the choices and commitments made regarding certain personal and social traits. The work done in this paradigm considers how much one has made certain choices, and how much he or she displays a commitment to those choices. Identity involves the adoption of 1) a sexual orientation, 2) a set of values and ideals and 3) a vocational direction. A well-developed identity gives on a sense of one’s strengths, weaknesses, and individual uniqueness. A person with a less well-developed identity is not able to define his or her personal strengths and weaknesses, and does not have a well articulated sense of self.

    To better understand the identity formation process, Marcia conducted interviews with young people. He asked whether the participants in his study (1) had established a commitment to an occupation and ideology and (2) had experienced, or were presently experiencing, a decision making period (adolescent identity crisis). Marcia developed a framework for thinking about identity in terms of four identity statuses.

    Additional Resources and References

    Resources

    • Marcia et al.: Ego Identity: A Handbook for Psychosocial Research: This useful book contains an integrated presentation of identity theory, including literature reviews that span hundreds of of research studies, a discussion of the techniques of interviewing for psychosocial constructs, and model Identity Status Interviews and scoring manuals for a variety of age groups.
    • Schwartz et al.: Handbook of Identity Theory and Research [2 Volume Set]: This impressive handbook brings “unity and clarity to a diverse and fragmented literature.” presenting perspectives from many different theoretical schools and empirical approaches: psychology (e.g., narrative, social identity theory, neo-Eriksonian) and from other disciplines (e.g., sociology, political science, ethnic studies).

    References

    1. Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status.Journal of personality and social psychology, 3(5), 551.
    2. Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. Handbook of adolescent psychology, 9(11), 159-187.

  • Ethical Theories and Frameworks

    Ethical theories are important to study in order to establish a strong foundation for challenging situations or guide decisions — how do we know whether something is right or wrong? How can we use ethical theories and frameworks to help us determine appropriate legislation or whether or not a particular technology is designed to be ethical? The good news is that for many centuries, philosophers have discussed theoretical ways of understanding morality and ethics and have theorized various ways to guide moral living.

    The following is a brief summary of the most common categories of ethical theories and frameworks. Click on any of the following for further details.

    • Consequence Based (Utilitarian) – this perspective, founded by Jeremy Bentham, focuses on consequences and results and the pursuit of common good — a central goal is to maximize happiness and minimize suffering for the most people.
    • Duty Based (Deontology) – this perspective, founded by Immanuel Kant, is focused on binding rules and one’s obligation and duty to family, country, church, or other etc. One’s motive is important; results or consequences of one’s actions are not the focus.
    • Contract Based  (Rights) – this perspective is about rights and agreements between people; not necessarily about character, consequences, or principles.
    • Character Based (Virtue) – founded by Aristotle, this perspective is focused on virtue and practicing good.

  • Chaos Theory

    Summary: Chaos theory is a mathematical theory that can be used to explain complex systems such as weather, astronomy, politics, and economics. Although many complex systems appear to behave in a random manner, chaos theory shows that, in reality, there is an underlying order that is difficult to see.

    Originators: Henri Poincaré (1854-1912), Edward Lorenz (1917-2008)

    Keywords: order, chaos, complex systems, determinism, butterfly effect, sensitive dependence on initial conditions, nonlinear dynamics, chaos dynamics

    Many complex systems can be better understood through the lens of Chaos Theory. Henri Poincaré, a mathematician, laid the groundwork for Chaos Theory.[i] He was the first to point out that many deterministic systems display a “sensitive dependence on initial conditions.” Poincaré described this concept in the following way: “It may happen that small differences in the initial conditions produce very great ones in the final phenomena. A small error in the former will produce an enormous error in the latter. Prediction becomes impossible.”

    For example, Poincaré pointed out that the apparent lack of order seen in many astronomical systems was actually not random or chaotic. Instead, astronomers were just not seeing the small changes in initial conditions that were leading to humongous differences in the final phenomena that were being observed.

    Later, in the 1900s, Edward Lorenz officially coined the term Chaos Theory. Lorenz studied Chaos Theory in the context of weather systems. When making weather predictions, he noticed that his calculations were significantly impacted by the extent to which he rounded his numbers.  The end result of the calculation was significantly different when he used a number rounded to three digits as compared to a number rounded to six digits.

    His observations on Chaos Theory in weather systems led to his famous talk, which he entitled, “Predictability: Does the Flap of a Butterfly’s Wings in Brazil set off a Tornado in Texas?” In reference to this talk, Chaos Theory has also been described as the “butterfly effect.”

    Application of Chaos Theory  

    Chaos theory has a lot to teach people about decision making in complex environments. The mathematical concepts used to understand physical systems are now being applied to social environments such as politics, economics, business, and other social sciences.[ii]

    Although applying Chaos Theory to business settings is still in its infancy, social scientists describe the following applications as useful when making business decisions.[iii]

    • Chaos theory suggests that spending a lot of time trying to predict the future of complex, non-linear systems may be better spent elsewhere. Instead of trying to predict long-term future outcomes, businesses should consider and plan for multiple possible outcomes.
    • Chaos theory reminds business owners that small changes in business practice can lead to huge changes in future outcomes based on the concept of sensitive dependence on initial conditions. Some business managers underestimate the possibility for large unexpected changes, and should reconsider their mindset on this matter.
    • Chaos theory assumes that there is order behind seemingly random events. Even though businesses may not be helped by making long-term future predictions, they can make short-term forecasts to help with business decisions.
    • Because of the complexity and unpredictability inherent in complex systems, businesses need clear guidelines for employees to follow. However, since sudden and drastic changes are bound to occur, business owners should be ready to adapt these guidelines as necessary.

    References  

    [i] Oestreicher, C. (2007). A history of chaos theory. Dialogues in Clinical Neurosciene, 9(3), 279-289.

    [ii] Richards, D. (1990). Is strategic decision making chaotic? Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 35(3), 219-232.

    [iii] Chaos theory and strategy: Theory, application, and managerial implications. Strategic Management Journal, 15, 167-178.