Originator: Abraham Maslow in 1943.

Key terms: deficiency needs, growth needs, physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, self-actualization

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham H. Maslow felt as though conditioning theories did not adequately acapture the complexity of human behavior. In a 1943 paper called A Theory of Human Motivation, Maslow presented the idea that human actions are directed toward goal attainment. Any given behavior could satisfy several functions at the same time; for instance, going to a pub could satisfy one’s needs for self-esteem and for social interaction.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs has often been represented in a hierarchial pyramid with five levels. The four levels (lower-order needs) are considered physiological needs, while the top level is considered growth needs. The lower level needs need to be satisfied before higher-order needs can influence behavior. The levels are as follows (see pyramid in Figure 1 below).

• Self-actualization – morality, creativity, problem solving, etc.
• Esteem – includes confidence, self-esteem, achievement, respect, etc.
• Belongingness – includes love, friendship, intimacy, family, etc.
• Safety – includes security of environment, employment, resources, health, property, etc.
• Physiological – includes air, food, water, sex, sleep, other factors towards homeostasis, etc.

Figure 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Pyramid.

Deprivation Needs

The first four levels are considered deficiency or deprivation needs (”D-needs”) in that their lack of satisfaction causes a deficiency that motivates people to meet these needs. Physiological needs, the lowest level on the hierarchy, include necessities such as air, food, and water. These tend to be satisfied for most people, but they become predominant when unmet. During emergencies, safety needs such as health and security rise to the forefront. Once these two levels are met, belongingness needs, such as obtaining love and intimate relationships or close friendships, become important. The next level, esteem needs, include the need for recognition from others, confidence, achievement, and self-esteem.

Growth Needs

The highest level is self-actualization, or the self-fulfillment. Behavior in this case is not driven or motivated by deficiencies but rather one’s desire for personal growth and the need to become all the things that a person is capable of becoming (Maslow, 1970).

Criticisms

While a useful guide for generally understanding why students behave the way that they do and in determining how learning may be affected by physiological or safety deficiencies, Maslow’s theory has its share of criticisms. Some have noted vagueness in what is a “deficiency”; what is a deficiency for one is not necessarily a deficiency for another. Secondly, there seem to be various exceptions that frequently occur. For example, some people often risk their own safety to rescue others from danger.

For more information, see:

• Maslow, A. H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50, pp. 370. Link to Full Text.
• Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and Personality, 2nd. Ed., New York, Harper & Row. ISBN 0060419873.
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs at the University of Hawaii.
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs at Deeper Mind.

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Originator: John Keller

Key terms: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction (ARCS)

ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller)

1. Attention

• Keller attention can be gained in two ways: (1) Perceptual arousal – uses surprise or uncertainly to gain interest. Uses novel, surprising, incongruous, and uncertain events; or (2) Inquiry arousal – stimulates curiosity by posing challenging questions or problems to be solved.
• Methods for grabbing the learners’ attention include the use of:
  • Active participation -Adopt strategies such as games, roleplay or other hands-on methods to get learners involved with the material or subject matter.
  • Variability – To better reinforce materials and account for individual differences in learning styles, use a variety of methods in presenting material (e.g. use of videos, short lectures, mini-discussion groups).
  • Humor -Maintain interest by use a small amount of humor (but not too much to be distracting)
  • Incongruity and Conflict – A devil’s advocate approach in which statements are posed that go against a learner’s past experiences.
  • Specific examples – Use a visual stimuli, story, or biography.
  • Inquiry – Pose questions or problems for the learners to solve, e.g. brainstorming activities.

2. Relevance

• Establish relevance in order to increase a learner’s motivation. To do this, use concrete language and examples with which the learners are familiar. Six major strategies described by Keller include:
  • Experience – Tell the learners how the new learning will use their existing skills. We best learn by building upon our preset knowledge or skills.
  • Present Worth – What will the subject matter do for me today?
  • Future Usefulness – What will the subject matter do for me tomorrow?
  • Needs Matching – Take advantage of the dynamics of achievement, risk taking, power, and affiliation.
  • Modeling – First of all, “be what you want them to do!” Other strategies include guest speakers, videos, and having the learners who finish their work first to serve as tutors. 
  • Choice – Allow the learners to use different methods to pursue their work or allowing s choice in how they organize it.

3. Confidence

• Help students understand their likelihood for success. If they feel they cannot meet the objectives or that the cost (time or effort) is too high, their motivation will decrease.
• Provide objectives and prerequisites – Help students estimate the probability of success by presenting performance requirements and evaluation criteria. Ensure the learners are aware of performance requirements and evaluative criteria.
• Allow for success that is meaningful.
• Grow the Learners – Allow for small steps of growth during the learning process.
• Feedback – Provide feedback and support internal attributions for success.
• Learner Control – Learners should feel some degree of control over their learning and assessment. They should believe that their success is a direct result of the amount of effort they have put forth.

4. Satisfaction

• Learning must be rewarding or satisfying in some way, whether it is from a sense of achievement, praise from a higher-up, or mere entertainment.
• Make the learner feel as though the skill is useful or beneficial by providing opportunities to use newly acquired knowledge in a real setting.
• Provide feedback and reinforcement. When learners appreciate the results, they will be motivated to learn. Satisfaction is based upon motivation, which can be intrinsic or extrinsic.
• Do not patronize the learner by over-rewarding easy tasks.

For more information, see:

• Keller, J. M. (1983). Motivational design of instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: An overview of their current status. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Keller, J. M. (1984). The use of the ARCS model of motivation in teacher training. In K. Shaw & A. J. Trott (Eds.), Aspects of Educational Technology Volume XVII: staff Development and Career Updating. London: Kogan Page.
• Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of motivational design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10(3), 2-10. John Keller’s Official ARCS Model Website

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